The Russian Duma: A Constitutional Experiment
The Birth of the Duma: Revolution and Reform
The Russian Empire entered the 20th century as one of Europe's last absolute monarchies. The Tsar held supreme power, and there was no national elected body to represent the people. This changed dramatically in 1905. After a disastrous war with Japan and a peaceful protest in St. Petersburg turned violent (an event known as Bloody Sunday1), Russia erupted in widespread strikes, peasant uprisings, and military mutinies. To calm the revolutionary storm, Tsar Nicholas II issued the October Manifesto2 on October 17, 1905.
This manifesto promised "firm foundations of civil liberty" and, crucially, the creation of a legislative assembly, the State Duma. No law was to take effect without the Duma's approval. It was a monumental shift, moving Russia from an autocracy to a constitutional monarchy, at least on paper. The establishment of the Duma can be thought of as a pressure-release valve, much like installing an emergency brake on a train that was moving too fast toward a cliff. It was designed to channel popular discontent into a controlled, legal forum.
However, the Tsar was determined to keep as much power as possible. In 1906, before the first Duma even met, he issued the Fundamental Laws3. These laws reaffirmed that the Tsar retained supreme autocratic power. He kept control over the military, foreign policy, and the appointment of ministers. The Duma's budget powers were also restricted. Furthermore, a powerful upper house, the State Council, was half-appointed by the Tsar and could block any Duma legislation. The Duma was born, but it was placed in a very tight constitutional cage.
The Four Dumas: A Rollercoaster of Conflict and Change
Between 1906 and 1917, four different Dumas were elected. Each had a different political composition and relationship with the Tsar's government, largely shaped by changes to the election rules.
| Duma | Dates | Nickname & Key Characteristic | Main Conflict & Fate |
|---|---|---|---|
| First | Apr-Jul 1906 | "Duma of People's Hopes" – Radically liberal, dominated by Kadets4 and Trudoviks5. | Demanded sweeping land reform and the release of political prisoners. The government refused all demands. Dissolved after 72 days. |
| Second | Feb-Jun 1907 | Even more radical, with a strong showing from socialist parties. | Continued conflict over land reform. Dissolved after 102 days under a false pretext of plotting against the Tsar. |
| Third | 1907-1912 | "The Duma of Lords and Lackeys" – Conservative, dominated by Octobrists6 and nobles. | This was achieved by a coup against the election system (June 3rd Coup7). It served a full term, cooperating with the government on limited reforms. |
| Fourth | 1912-1917 | More divided, but still largely conservative and nationalist. | Initially patriotic during WWI. By 1917, it grew highly critical of the government's incompetence. It was the Duma that formed the Provisional Committee during the February Revolution. |
The shift from the radical First Duma to the conservative Third Duma is a classic example of political engineering. Prime Minister Pyotr Stolypin changed the electoral law in 1907 to heavily favor wealthy landowners and urban elites. This can be modeled like changing the weight of votes in a classroom election. If the teacher decides that votes from students with an A+ average count for 5 points, B students for 3 points, and everyone else for 1 point, the outcome will heavily favor the high-achievers. Stolypin's "coup" did exactly that, ensuring a Duma more loyal to the Tsar.
Despite its limitations, the Duma became a vital national platform. For the first time, peasants, workers, nobles, and intellectuals from across the empire debated laws, budgets, and the nation's future in public. It passed important laws on education, workers' insurance, and agrarian reform (the Stolypin land reforms). It also fiercely investigated government scandals and military failures, shining a light on corruption and inefficiency.
A Laboratory of Democracy: The Duma's Electoral System
The way Duma members were elected was complex and not based on "one person, one vote." The system was indirect, unequal, and based on social estates (classes).
The empire's population was divided into several curiae (voting colleges): Landowners, Peasants, Town Dwellers, and Workers. Each curia elected a certain number of electors, who then gathered in provincial electoral assemblies to choose the Duma deputies. Crucially, the number of voters needed to elect one elector varied greatly:
- One landowner elector represented about 230 voters.
- One peasant elector represented about 60,000 voters.
- One worker elector represented about 125,000 voters.
This can be expressed as a ratio of influence. If we assign the landowner's vote a value of 1, the relative weight of a peasant's vote was much smaller, and a worker's even smaller.
After the 1907 coup, the system became even more skewed. The landowners' curia gained a majority of electors in the provincial assemblies, guaranteeing a Duma dominated by the nobility and wealthy classes. This system highlights the Tsarist regime's deep distrust of direct democracy and its attempt to create a "safe" parliament that would advise, not challenge, the autocrat.
The Duma and the Fall of the Monarchy in 1917
The outbreak of World War I in 1914 initially united the Duma behind the Tsar in a patriotic fervor. However, as the war dragged on, with massive casualties, economic collapse, and government mismanagement, the Duma's mood shifted. By 1915, a "Progressive Bloc" formed, comprising about two-thirds of its members. They demanded a "government of public confidence" – ministers chosen from and trusted by the Duma, not just the Tsar's court favorites.
Nicholas II stubbornly refused. His decision to personally take command of the army in 1915 left the unpopular Tsarina Alexandra and her advisor, the mystic Grigori Rasputin, in charge in the capital, further discrediting the monarchy. The Duma became the focal point for national frustration. In February 1917, food shortages and strikes in Petrograd (formerly St. Petersburg) sparked a revolution.
When the Tsar ordered the Duma to dissolve itself, it refused. On February 27, 1917, Duma members formed a Provisional Committee to restore order. Simultaneously, socialist parties formed the Petrograd Soviet8 of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies. With the army joining the revolution, Nicholas II abdicated. The Provisional Committee transformed into the Provisional Government, and for a brief period, the old Tsarist Duma continued to exist in the background. However, its role was over. Power had shifted decisively to the new government and the rival Soviet. The Duma was formally dissolved by the Provisional Government in October 1917, just before the Bolsheviks seized power.
Important Questions
The First Duma, elected with wide expectations for change, immediately clashed with the government over its core demands: a political amnesty, radical land redistribution from nobles to peasants, and a truly responsible ministry. The Tsar's government, led by Prime Minister Ivan Goremykin, viewed these demands as an attack on the foundations of autocracy and property rights. With neither side willing to compromise, the Tsar dissolved the Duma after just over two months, setting a pattern of conflict for the future.
Despite its turbulent history, the Duma's main accomplishment was its very existence. It established the principle of a nationally elected legislature in Russia. It passed significant social legislation, such as laws introducing accident and health insurance for workers. It also approved the important Stolypin land reforms, which allowed peasants to leave the village commune and own their land individually, aiming to create a class of conservative, property-owning farmers. Furthermore, it served as a public training ground for politics and a platform for criticizing the government, which was entirely new in Russian life.
The Duma did not start the February Revolution, which began with spontaneous bread riots and strikes. However, it played a crucial role in legitimizing the revolution and providing an alternative authority. When the Tsar ordered its dissolution, its leaders refused to obey. By forming the Provisional Committee (which became the Provisional Government), the Duma leadership offered a clear, constitutional alternative to the collapsing Tsarist regime. This action helped to channel the revolutionary energy and provided a semblance of orderly transition, at least initially.
Footnote
- Bloody Sunday (January 9, 1905): A peaceful march of workers and families to the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg to present a petition to the Tsar. Imperial guards opened fire on the crowd, killing and wounding hundreds. This event shattered the people's faith in the "Little Father" Tsar and ignited the 1905 Revolution.
- October Manifesto: A proclamation issued by Tsar Nicholas II on October 17, 1905, in response to the revolutionary upheaval. It granted civil liberties (speech, assembly, association) and promised the establishment of a legislative Duma with real power.
- Fundamental Laws (1906): The constitution of the Russian Empire, issued by the Tsar just before the first Duma met. It declared the Tsar as an "autocrat" with supreme state power, retained his control over key government functions, and created an upper legislative house (State Council) to counterbalance the Duma.
- Kadets (Constitutional Democratic Party): The leading liberal political party in Russia from 1905-1917. They advocated for a constitutional monarchy with a powerful parliament, broad civil rights, and land reform with compensation to landowners.
- Trudoviks (Labour Group): A loose parliamentary group in the Duma that represented peasant and narodnik (populist) interests. They were more radical than the Kadets, demanding the immediate, uncompensated transfer of noble lands to peasants.
- Octobrists (Union of October 17): A conservative-liberal party that fully supported the Tsar's October Manifesto as the final word on reform. They represented landowners and business interests, favored a strong monarchy working with the Duma, and opposed further radical changes.
- June 3rd Coup (1907): Not a violent military coup, but a unilateral and illegal change to the electoral law by Prime Minister Pyotr Stolypin and Tsar Nicholas II. They dissolved the Second Duma and published a new electoral system that drastically reduced the representation of peasants, workers, and non-Russian nationalities, ensuring a conservative majority in the Third Duma.
- Petrograd Soviet: The Council (Soviet) of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies formed in Petrograd during the February Revolution. It was a rival center of power to the Provisional Government, issuing its own orders (like Order No. 1, which undermined military discipline) and representing socialist and revolutionary parties.