The Art and Science of Interviews
What is an Interview in Research?
An interview is a conversation with a purpose. In research, it's a systematic method where an investigator, called the interviewer, asks questions to another person, the interviewee or respondent, to gather information. Unlike casual conversations, research interviews follow a planned approach where questions are designed to collect specific data relevant to the study's objectives.
This method is used across numerous fields. A journalist interviews witnesses to understand an event. A scientist interviews study participants about their experiences. A market researcher interviews consumers to learn about product preferences. In each case, the interviewer records responses carefully, whether through notes, audio recording, or video, to ensure data accuracy for later analysis.
Types of Interviews: From Rigid to Flexible
Interviews are not all the same. Researchers choose different formats based on their goals, with the main types existing on a spectrum from highly structured to completely unstructured.
| Type | Description | When to Use | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Structured Interview | Uses identical, predetermined questions in a fixed order, like a verbal questionnaire. Little to no deviation is allowed. | When collecting standardized data from many people for statistical comparison. | A census taker asking every household the same set of questions about family size and income. |
| Semi-Structured Interview | Uses a list of key questions as a guide but allows the interviewer to ask follow-up questions and explore interesting responses. | When you need comparable data but also want depth and detail from each participant. | A researcher studying study habits asks all students about their schedule but follows up uniquely based on each answer. |
| Unstructured Interview | Resembles a casual conversation. No predetermined questions; the interviewer explores a general topic based on the respondent's leads. | For exploratory research to understand complex issues, personal experiences, or sensitive topics. | A journalist asking a veteran to "tell the story of your military service" without a specific question list. |
The Interview Process: A Step-by-Step Guide
Conducting a successful interview requires careful planning and execution. Following a structured process ensures the data collected is reliable and useful.
Step 1: Planning and Preparation
This is the most crucial phase. Researchers must define their objectives, identify who they need to interview (the sample), and design their interview protocol. The protocol includes the questions, possible probes (follow-ups), and instructions for the interviewer. For example, a student researching lunch preferences would prepare questions about favorite foods, spending habits, and opinions on healthy options.
Step 2: Conducting the Interview
The interviewer begins by building rapport—a positive and comfortable relationship with the interviewee. They explain the purpose of the interview, how long it will take, and assure confidentiality. During the questioning, the interviewer listens actively, asks clear and neutral questions, and records the answers accurately. Good interviewers avoid leading questions like, "You thought that was terrible, right?" and instead ask, "How did you feel about that?"
Step 3: Recording and Transcription
Data must be preserved for analysis. This can be done through detailed note-taking, audio recording (with permission), or both. Later, audio recordings are often transcribed, meaning they are typed out word-for-word to create a text document for easier analysis.
Step 4: Data Analysis
The researcher examines the collected responses to identify patterns, themes, and insights. For structured interviews, this might involve counting responses and calculating percentages. For unstructured interviews, it involves carefully reading transcripts to find common ideas and unique perspectives.
Crafting Effective Interview Questions
The quality of interview data depends heavily on the quality of the questions. Good questions are clear, neutral, and open-ended when depth is needed.
| Question Type | Purpose | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Open-Ended | To gather detailed, descriptive answers. They cannot be answered with "yes" or "no." | "Can you describe what a typical school day is like for you?" |
| Closed-Ended | To get specific, short answers for easy comparison and counting. | "How many hours did you study yesterday?" or "Do you own a bicycle? (Yes/No)" |
| Probing | To dig deeper into an initial response and get more detail. | Interviewer: "I felt frustrated." Probe: "Can you tell me more about what was frustrating?" |
Interviews in Action: Real-World Case Studies
Interviews are powerful tools in many real-world scenarios. Let's explore how they are used in different fields to collect crucial data.
Case Study 1: Public Health Research
During a disease outbreak, epidemiologists from the CDC[1] conduct interviews with infected patients. They ask structured questions about where they have been, what they ate, and who they were in contact with. This interview data is analyzed to find the common source of the illness (like a contaminated food product) and to identify other people who might be at risk, helping to contain the outbreak.
Case Study 2: Market Research for a New Product
A company planning to launch a new energy drink might use semi-structured interviews with teenagers. They ask about current drink preferences, what flavors they like, how much they would pay, and what packaging attracts them. The detailed feedback helps the company design a product that has a better chance of success in the competitive market.
Case Study 3: Oral History in Social Studies
Historians often use unstructured interviews to record "oral histories." They might interview community elders about their lives during a significant historical period, like a war or a social movement. These interviews preserve first-hand accounts and personal perspectives that are often missing from history books, providing a richer, more human understanding of the past.
Weighing the Pros and Cons
Like any method, interviews have significant strengths and notable weaknesses that researchers must consider.
| Advantages | Disadvantages |
|---|---|
| High Response Rate: People are more likely to answer questions in a conversation than to fill out a survey. | Time-Consuming: Conducting and analyzing interviews takes much more time than distributing surveys. |
| Clarity and Depth: Interviewers can clarify confusing questions and probe for deeper, more meaningful answers. | Interviewer Bias: The interviewer's tone, appearance, or reactions can unconsciously influence the respondent's answers. |
| Adaptability: In semi-structured and unstructured formats, the interviewer can explore unexpected but relevant topics that arise. | Cost: Training interviewers, traveling to meet respondents, and transcribing recordings can be expensive. |
| Non-Verbal Data: The interviewer can observe body language, tone of voice, and facial expressions, which add context to the words. | Lack of Anonymity: The face-to-face nature may make respondents less willing to share sensitive or embarrassing information. |
Common Mistakes and Important Questions
Q: What is the difference between an interview and a survey?
While both collect data through questions, the key difference is the level of interaction. A survey is typically a written questionnaire that respondents fill out on their own. It's standardized and efficient for large groups. An interview involves direct, personal interaction between an interviewer and a respondent, allowing for clarification, follow-up questions, and the collection of more nuanced, in-depth data. Surveys are generally better for breadth (many people), while interviews are better for depth (detailed information from fewer people).
Q: What is "interviewer bias" and how can it be minimized?
Interviewer bias occurs when the interviewer's expectations, opinions, or behavior inadvertently influence the respondent's answers. For example, nodding enthusiastically when you hear an answer you like might encourage the respondent to give more answers they think you want to hear. To minimize bias, interviewers should: 1) Use neutral probing (e.g., "Can you tell me more?" instead of "That's great, what else?"). 2) Ask all questions in the same neutral tone. 3) Receive proper training to be aware of their own potential biases. Using a highly structured interview format also reduces the opportunity for bias.
Q: Are phone and online interviews as effective as face-to-face ones?
Phone and online (via video call) interviews are very effective and have become increasingly common. They offer advantages like lower cost, no need for travel, and the ability to reach people in different geographic areas. However, they also have drawbacks. In phone interviews, the interviewer misses non-verbal cues like body language. In both formats, technical issues can disrupt the conversation, and it can be harder to build the same level of rapport as in a face-to-face meeting. The "best" method depends on the research question, budget, and the population being studied.
Interviews are a versatile and powerful tool in the researcher's toolkit, allowing for the collection of rich, detailed, and nuanced data directly from the source. From the rigid structure of a census interview to the free-flowing conversation of an oral history, this method provides insights that numbers alone cannot capture. Understanding the different types of interviews, the process of conducting them, and their inherent strengths and weaknesses is essential for anyone looking to gather reliable information. Whether you're a student working on a science fair project, a journalist uncovering a story, or a scientist testing a hypothesis, mastering the art of the interview will empower you to seek and find deeper answers.
Footnote
[1] CDC: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. A national public health agency in the United States responsible for protecting public health and safety through the control and prevention of disease, injury, and disability.