1. Binary addition, subtraction, logic gates, Karnaugh maps, flip-flops, truth tables, hexadecimal conversion
2. D flip-flop timing diagrams, propagation delay, setup and hold time, clocked sequential circuits
3. Finite state machines, Moore/Mealy models, state transition tables, output behavior analysis
4. Memory types, ROM vs RAM, DRAM and SRAM differences, memory address decoding
5. Microprocessor instruction cycle, ALU operations, register usage, instruction decoding
6. Bus systems, control signals, data/address bus distinctions, memory-mapped I/O vs isolated I/O