1. Organic mechanisms: radical substitution, electrophilic substitution with halogen carrier, nucleophilic addition with cyanide, reaction conditions for oxidation, esterification, and polymerization; structural flowchart completion 2. Spectroscopic and analytical techniques: IR peak interpretation for functional groups, ¹³C and ¹H NMR signal analysis and splitting patterns, molecular formula from elemental analysis, structural deduction from combined IR, MS, NMR data 3. Synthetic routes: multi-step synthesis (including reduction, halogenation, amide formation), acyl chloride and ester preparation, buffer formulation, reaction of amines and carboxylic acids, trimerisation mechanism 4. Functional group identification and reactions: acid and phenol differentiation, aldehyde and ketone tests, hydrolysis of esters and peptides, interpretation of carbonyl reaction mechanisms, evidence of stereoisomerism 5. Polymer chemistry: repeat unit drawing, solubility and hydrogen bonding explanation, polyester formation via diacid and diol or diacyl chloride, biodegradability via hydrolysable linkages