1. French Revolution—Louis XVI’s weak leadership, Grande Peur 1789, 1791 Constitution, Terror causes (economic crisis, military defeats)

2. Italian Unification—post-1861 north-south division, effects of Magenta and Solferino, 1848 revolts (Mazzini, Sicily), Piedmont reforms (connubio, Church influence)

3. Nazi Germany—limited support for Nazis 1933–39, women’s role during WWII, Treaty of Versailles backlash (reparations, land), Stresemann′s policies (Locarno, Dawes Plan)

4. India Nationalism—Amritsar Massacre, Gandhi’s 1920s campaigns, WWII impact on independence demand, partition reasons (communal violence, princely states)

5. USSR—Moscow Show Trials (purges, NKVD torture), Gosplan’s industrialization, Stalin vs Trotsky leadership claim, WWII Soviet victory (production, allies)

6. Cold War—Stalin-Truman conflict at Potsdam, Marshall Plan’s impact, Hungary 1956 uprising (international reaction), Czechoslovakia 1968 (Soviet control, Dubček)