1. Verification principle: A.J. Ayer, logical positivism, meaning through empirical verifiability, rejection of metaphysics and theology, criticisms by Hick (eschatological verification) and falsification principle 2. William James on religious experience: pragmatism, characteristics of mystical experience (ineffability, noetic quality, passivity, transiency), personal transformation as truth indicator, criticisms (subjectivity, naturalistic explanations) 3. Descartes′ dualism: mind/soul-body distinction, cogito ergo sum, substance dualism, interactionism, objections from physicalism, Ryle’s ‘ghost in the machine’, modern neuroscience 4. Natural evil: distinction from moral evil, challenges to theodicy, Augustinian and Irenaean responses, process theology, existential and evidential problem of evil 5. Key philosophical themes: epistemology, religious language, metaphysics of mind, problem of evil; evaluation of logical coherence, explanatory power, and philosophical consequence 6. 40-mark essay format; demands structured argument, integration of key philosophers, counterarguments, and philosophical depth in reasoning