The North German Confederation
Before the Confederation: A Patchwork of States
Before 1867, what we know as Germany was a complex mosaic of dozens of independent kingdoms, duchies, principalities, and free cities. This collection was loosely tied together in an organization called the German Confederation[1], established in 1815 after the defeat of Napoleon. However, this confederation was weak. It had no real central government, no common army, and no unified economic policy. The two most powerful members, Austria and Prussia, were constantly competing for influence, causing political gridlock.
Imagine a school project group where two strong-willed leaders (Austria and Prussia) have very different ideas and can't agree on anything. The rest of the group members (the smaller German states) are forced to choose sides, and the project (German unity) goes nowhere. This was the situation for decades.
The struggle between Austria and Prussia is similar to the repulsion between two magnets with the same pole facing each other. Just as two north poles push each other apart, preventing a unified magnetic field, the rivalry between these two powers prevented a unified German political field. The Austro-Prussian War was the event that finally pushed one magnet (Austria) out of the system, allowing the other (Prussia) to align all the smaller magnetic pieces (the northern states) into a single, coherent field—the North German Confederation.
The Catalyst: The Austro-Prussian War of 1866
Otto von Bismarck, the master strategist leading Prussia, believed that unity could only be achieved "by blood and iron," not by speeches and treaties. He deliberately provoked a war with Austria over the administration of territories won from Denmark in 1864. The war was short and decisive. Prussia's modern, well-trained army, equipped with new breech-loading rifles, won a stunning victory at the Battle of Königgrätz on July 3, 1866.
The peace treaty that followed fundamentally reshaped the map. Austria was permanently excluded from German affairs. Prussia annexed several states that had sided with Austria, like the Kingdom of Hanover, the Electorate of Hesse-Kassel, and the Free City of Frankfurt. This greatly increased Prussian territory and connected its eastern and western heartlands. With Austria gone, the path was clear for Prussia to organize the remaining German states north of the Main River into a new, Prussian-dominated union.
Blueprint for a Nation: The Constitution of 1867
The North German Confederation was not a loose alliance; it was a federal state with a modern constitution, passed in July 1867. This document is arguably its most important legacy, as it became, with few changes, the constitution of the German Empire in 1871. Let's break down its key features:
| Branch/Feature | Description | Power Center |
|---|---|---|
| Presidency (Präsidium) | The head of the confederation. Held permanently by the King of Prussia. | Prussia |
| Federal Chancellor (Bundeskanzler) | The only responsible minister, appointed by the Presidency. Otto von Bismarck held this office. | Prussia |
| Bundesrat (Federal Council) | The upper house. Composed of representatives appointed by the governments of the member states. Prussia had 17 of 43 votes, enough to veto any constitutional change. | Prussia & State Governments |
| Reichstag (Imperial Diet) | The lower house, a national parliament. Elected by all male citizens over 25. It could debate and approve laws and the budget. | The People (limited democracy) |
| Military | The armies of the member states were integrated under Prussian command, with Prussian military standards. | Prussia |
| Economy | Adopted the existing Zollverein[2] (Customs Union) rules and created a common currency, the Vereinsthaler. | Central Authority |
The system was cleverly designed to look modern and include democratic elements (the Reichstag), while keeping real power firmly in Prussian hands. The king of Prussia was the head of state, the Prussian army was the core of the federal forces, and Prussia could block any important change in the Bundesrat. It was a balance between unity and Prussian dominance.
A Federation in Action: Laws and Unification
The North German Confederation used its new powers to pass laws that standardized life across its member states, breaking down internal barriers much like the United States did in its early years. It established:
- A common citizenship for all Confederation inhabitants.
- Freedom of movement and settlement within its borders.
- Uniform systems for weights, measures, and coinage.
- Common rules for postal services and trade.
- Protection for industrial property (patents).
These were not abstract ideas. For a merchant in Hamburg, it meant he could now sell his goods in Saxony without paying internal tariffs and use the same currency. For a worker, it meant he could move to Berlin for a job without needing special permission. The confederation was creating a single, functioning economic and legal space. This process of standardization is called harmonization.
Before the confederation, each state might have used its own unit for distance (like a "Meile" that was a different length in Hanover vs. Prussia). This is as confusing as if every classroom in your school used a different ruler. Unification is like declaring that from now on, everyone will use the metric system. The formula for area, $A = l \times w$, only works simply if $l$ and $w$ are in the same, standard units. The North German Confederation effectively said, "For all trade and law, we will now use the same 'ruler'." This reduced "friction" in the economy, making transactions smoother and faster.
From Confederation to Empire: The Franco-Prussian War
By 1870, the North German Confederation was a stable and powerful entity. But "Germany" was still divided, as the major southern states—Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, and Hesse-Darmstadt—remained outside, south of the Main River. They had defense treaties with the confederation but were not members.
The final act of unification was triggered by the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). Bismarck skillfully manipulated a diplomatic dispute with France into a war that appeared as French aggression. In the face of a common enemy, German national sentiment surged. The southern German states joined their armies with the North German Confederation's forces. The combined German armies, led by Prussia, won a series of decisive victories, culminating in the capture of French Emperor Napoleon III at the Battle of Sedan.
In the wake of this triumph, the patriotic momentum was irresistible. The southern states agreed to join a new, expanded federation. On January 18, 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, the German Empire (Deutsches Reich) was proclaimed. King Wilhelm I of Prussia was declared German Emperor. The constitution of the North German Confederation was adopted almost unchanged for the new Empire, with Bismarck becoming its first Chancellor. The Confederation had successfully served as the prototype, and now it was absorbed into its final, larger form.
Important Questions
The Main River was chosen as a convenient geographical and political boundary. Bismarck initially wanted to keep the southern German states (especially Catholic Bavaria) separate to avoid diluting Prussian Protestant control and to not alarm France and Austria further. It was a temporary line, allowing him to consolidate power in the north first before pursuing full unification later.
It had democratic elements, but it was not a full democracy. The Reichstag was elected by universal male suffrage, which was very progressive for its time. However, real executive power lay with the Prussian King and Bismarck, who were not responsible to the Reichstag. The Bundesrat represented state governments, not the people. So, it was a system with a democratic parliament embedded within an authoritarian framework dominated by Prussia.
Technically, despite its name, the North German Confederation functioned more as a federation. In a confederation (like the earlier German Confederation), member states are sovereign and can leave easily; the central government is weak. In a federation, the central government is strong, has direct authority over citizens, and controls key areas like defense and foreign policy—exactly what the North German Constitution did. The German Empire that followed was essentially a federation with a hereditary emperor (the Prussian king) at its head.
Footnote
[1] German Confederation (Deutscher Bund): A loose association of 39 German states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to coordinate mutual defense and maintain the status quo. It had a weak central diet (assembly) in Frankfurt and was dissolved after the Austro-Prussian War in 1866.
[2] Zollverein: The German Customs Union, established in 1834 under Prussian leadership. It abolished internal tariffs between member states and created a common external tariff for trade with other countries. It was a major economic force for unification and was managed by the North German Confederation.